Elapids: A Snake Hall of Infamy Quiz

Answer: Oceania

Although snakes are found in most parts of the world except the polar regions, the members of the family Elapidae have a distinct preference for warm climates. Europe, with its generally temperate climate, does not host any elapid species: the only venomous snakes present on the continent belong to the Viperidae and Colubridae families, which for the most part do not pose any serious danger to humans. Elapids are also largely absent from northern North America, with the exception of the southwestern and southeastern US, where three species of coral snakes can be found.

Out of the 55 extant genera of elapid snakes, over half are concentrated in the Southern Hemisphere - namely Australia, Papua New Guinea, New Caledonia the Solomon Islands and Fiji, which are part of the geographical region (also considered a continent in many non-English-speaking parts of the world) of Oceania. The highest concentration of elapid species occurs in Australia, in particular in the country's "Red Centre" - where the iconic monolith of Uluru (shown in the photo) is located. Australia is well known for being home to more species of venomous snakes than non-venomous ones. However, the the danger these creatures pose to residents is limited because of the excellent medical infrastructure and the sparse population of the areas where venomous snakes are most common.

The name "elapid" comes from the Greek word "ellops", meaning "sea-fish".

Answer: they usually have thick bodies and broad heads

Despite their bad reputation, most of the nearly 4,200 living species of snakes (suborder Serpentes of the order Squamata) are nonvenomous and harmless to people. The members of the families Viperidae, Atractaspidae and Elapidae are all (or nearly all) venomous, unlike the majority of those of the family Colubridae (which, however, includes some dangerous species). While the world's most venomous snakes are all elapids, they are not necessarily the most dangerous or medically significant.

Unlike the viperids, which have hollow, hinged fangs, or the venomous colubrids, which have grooved fangs located at the back of their upper jaw, elapids have relatively short, permanently erect, fangs that fit into grooved slots when the snake's mouth is closed. This means that the snake often needs to hang on in order to deliver a sufficient dose of venom. Elapids have primarily neurotoxic venom, which is very effective in immobilizing their prey: the venom of large species such as cobras, mambas and many Australian species can kill a person very quickly, affecting the respiratory and central nervous systems, making immediate administration of antivenom mandatory. A number of elapid species - known as sea snakes - live in marine environments; there are also elapids that live in freshwater, such as the African water cobras.

As can be seen in the illustration (depicting two Indian elapid species), elapids are usually long and slender-bodied, with heads not always distinct from the neck. However, the snakes of the genus Acanthopis (commonly known as death adders) are very similar in build to the true vipers, with short, thick bodies and broad, triangular heads.

Answer: spitting

Spitting venom at a potential attacker is a specialized defense mechanism developed by a number of cobra species. Unlike injecting venom through a bite (which all these snakes are also capable of doing), this ability avoids direct contact with an attacker, and thus any risk of injury to the snake. Spitting cobras eject their venom from holes located near the tips of their fangs: they do not shoot at random, but take aim and direct their spray to vulnerable areas - eyes and face. They can shoot at a distance of up to 3 m (9.8 ft) from a target with 90% accuracy. While usually harmless on intact skin, the venom of spitting cobras, which has cytotoxic (damaging to cells) properties, can cause temporary or permanent blindness if introduced into the eye.

Most spitting cobras belong to the Naja genus of the elapid family, and are found both in Asia and Africa. Haemachatus haemachatus, or rinkhals ("ring-neck" in Afrikaans), is not a true cobra, though closely related; it inhabits grassland and wetland areas of eastern Southern Africa. As spitting is this snake's main defense mechanism, bites are very rare, and usually occur when people try to handle the animal. If injected through a bite, rinkhals venom causes a number of adverse effects, but is not as deadly as that of other elapids. In South Africa, it is not uncommon for dogs to be injured by the venom sprayed by a rinkhals.

Answer: it primarily hunts and eats other snakes

Like the rinkhals, the king cobra (Ophiophagus hannah) is not a true cobra, but the similarities it bears to the members of the genus Naja are enough to have earned it its common name. As can be seen from the photo, this impressive snake has a long, slender body, which can reach a length of over 5 m (16 ft). Its dark olive-green colouration with black and white bands makes it easy for the king cobra to blend with the forest floor. Classified as Vulnerable by IUCN (2012) mainly because of habitat loss, the king cobra is found from India (where it is regarded as the national reptile) to Indonesia and the Philippines.

The king cobra's generic name means "snake-eater", highlighting the fact that its primary source of nourishment is other snakes (quite plentiful in its forest and shrubland habitat), including members of its own species. Unlike lizards, and much like felines, snakes are obligate carnivores, and do not eat any kind of plant matter. The king cobra is not an aggressive snake, and resorts to impressive threat displays before attacking. When it does, however, it can strike with lightning speed, and deliver multiple bites. Because of the size of the snake and the large quantity of venom it is able to inject, a bite from a king cobra is an immediate medical emergency. This snake's venom has been known to kill elephants, and can bring about a human's death by respiratory failure in 30 minutes if untreated.

Answer: inland taipan

Also known as the fierce snake (though it is in fact rather placid and retiring), the inland taipan (Oxyuranus microlepidotus) was rediscovered by the scientific community in 1972, though its existence had been known since the 1870s. It is one of three members of the genus Oxyuranus, which also includes the coastal taipan (Oxyuranus scutellatus) of northern Australia and southern New Guinea - a much more dangerous snake due to its aggressive disposition. Rarely encountered in its sparsely populated habitat, the inland taipan primarily hunts mammals - which explains the potency of its venom, adapted to kill warm-blooded animals. Indeed, tests conducted on mice have proved that the venom of the inland taipan is the most toxic of any snake: the venom delivered in a single bite is enough to kill 100 adult humans. Though specific antivenom for this snake is available, recovering from a bite may take weeks.

The inland taipan does not grow as long as its coastal relative (which can reach a length 3 m/9.8 ft). It also has the distinctive feature of changing colour with the seasons - its dark brown winter skin (shown in the photo) turning a lighter brownish-green in summer. This particular adaptation allows the snake to absorb heat during the colder months.

The death adder (Acanthopis sp.) is also a dangerous Australian elapid. The bushmaster (Lachesis muta) is the largest of the pit vipers, while the boomslang (Dispholidus typus) is the most venomous of the rear-fanged Colubrids.

Answer: house mouse

Though the eastern brown snake (Pseudonaja textilis) may have a rather unassuming name, it enjoys the dubious distinction of being the world's second-most venomous land snake after the inland taipan. Unlike the latter, however, it is found in densely populated areas of Australia, and is thus much easier to encounter. Not surprisingly, it is responsible for the highest number of snakebite deaths in a country teeming with dangerous reptiles. As the photo shows, the eastern brown snake is slender-bodied, but can grow to the respectable length of 2 m (6.6) and over, though 1.5 m (4.9) is the average.

The eastern brown snake inhabits a wide range of habitats along the east coast of Australia, as well as parts of New Guinea. Its diet consists mainly of rodents, in particular house mice - which, like the other three mammals listed as possible answers, are not native to the country, but were introduced by European settlers. As they are primarily diurnal and hunt by sight, actively looking for prey, this often brings them in contact with people and pets. Needless to say, an eastern brown snake bite is an immediate medical emergency: fortunately specific antivenom has been available since 1956.

The other members of the genus Pseudonaja, collectively referred to as brown snakes, are also very dangerous, and account for a large proportion of snakebites in Australia.

Answer: Rudyard Kipling

Kraits are members of the genus Bungarus, which includes 18 species of medium-sized elapid snakes, often characterized by bold striped patterns and colour combinations. They are native to tropical and subtropical Asia, where they are found in forested and farmland areas from Iran to southern China. Some krait species are among the most venomous of land snakes, and significantly contribute to the snakebite mortality rate of the continent, particularly in India. Being nocturnal hunters (mainly of other snakes), kraits are rarely encountered by people during the day: most bites occur at night, both in the open and inside houses, which these snakes enter in search of prey. A krait bite is reportedly almost painless, but symptoms escalate quickly, leading to death by respiratory failure within a few hours if antivenom therapy is not administered. Even then, a number of people die in spite of treatment.

The common krait (Bungarus caeruleus) of the Indian subcontinent is responsible for many snakebite cases in that region. The genus' common name comes from the Hindi "karait" - which is the name mentioned by Rudyard Kipling in his short story "Rikki-Tikki-Tavi". In the story, Karait is described as a "dusty brown snakeling" whose bite is as dangerous as a cobra's: however, the common krait is brownish- or bluish-black with white bands (as shown in the photo), and can grow to over 1.50 m (4.9 ft) in length. Kipling probably used the name Karait to refer to another of India's "Big Four", the saw-scaled viper (Echis carinatus), which is small and greyish- or reddish-brown. The other two members of this infamous group are the Indian cobra (Naja naja), also an elapid, and Russell's viper (Daboia russelii).

Answer: True

Named after their striking colour patterns, coral snakes belong to five genera - three (Hemibungarus, Calliophis and Sinomicrurus) native to Asia, and two (Micrurus and Micruroides) native to the Americas. The three species of Micrurus found in the southern US are well known for their distinctive red, black and yellow or white banding, which resembles that of various species of harmless or only mildly venomous colubrid snakes such as the milk snake. This is a prominent example of Batesian mimicry - in which a harmless animal species has learned to imitate the warning signals of a more dangerous species in order to ward off predators. The photo depicts a specimen of eastern coral snake (Micrurus fulvius), the most common of the US coral snakes - the origin of the folk rhyme "red on yellow, kill a fellow" and its variations.

There are about 83 recognized species of New World coral snakes. Rarely over 1 m (3.2 ft) in length, they are mostly fossorial (burrowing) species, spending most of their time underground or buried under leaf litter. Their hollow fangs are so small that these snakes need to hold on to their prey and make chewing motions in order to deliver their venom - which was once believed to be deadly, but has now been proved to be milder (at least as far as humans are concerned) than the venom of other elapid species. Because coral snakes tend to be retiring and mainly inhabit sparsely populated areas, bites are rare, and deaths are rarer still. On the other hand, coral snakes are still feared throughout their range, and in the US have earned the nickname of "American cobra".

Answer: coffin

The black mamba (Dendroaspis polylepis) is the biggest, baddest villain in a potential snake hall of infamy. A native of sub-Saharan Africa, it is found in savanna and forest environments, often sheltering in abandoned burrows or termite mounds. It is the second-longest venomous snake after the king cobra, easily reaching a length of 3 m (9.8 ft) - though specimens of over 4 m (13 ft) have been reported. Grey to dark brown in colour, the black mamba owes its common name to the black inside of its mouth, which it displays when threatened. One of this snake's most distinctive features is the long, narrow shape of its head, which is frequently (and quite aptly) compared to a coffin.

The black mamba is also known for its remarkable speed over short distances (up to 16 km/h, or 10 mph) and its unpredictable nature, which have spawned a number of legends and stories. When confronted with a threat, it lifts the front of its body off the ground, hissing and spreading its neck into a hood: if this is not enough to deter an intruder, the snake will strike multiple times, delivering large amounts of deadly venom with its fangs, which are the longest in the elapid family. An untreated black mamba bite is almost 100% fatal, and can cause the death of an adult human being in under an hour. Massive doses of antivenom are often required to treat mamba bites, and even with treatment an estimated 14% of victims do not survive.

The genus Dendroaspis includes three more species, the green mamba (Dendroaspis angusticeps), the western green mamba (Dendroaspis viridis), and Jameson's mamba (Dendroaspis jamesoni) - all arboreal (unlike the mostly terrestrial black mamba), and all possessed of a very toxic venom.

Answer: Timor Sea

Sea snakes belong to the subfamilies Hydrophiinae (which also includes the Australian land elapids) and Laticaudinae. The members of the latter subfamily (which consists of a single genus, Laticauda) are also known as sea kraits, as they are banded like the land snakes of the genus Bungarus: they owe their generic name ("broad tail" in Latin) to their flattened, paddle-like tail. On the other hand, there are six genera of sea snakes in the subfamily Hydrophinae - one of which, Emydocephalus (turtle-headed sea snake) is the only non-venomous elapid. All other sea snakes are possessed of an extremely potent venom: one of them, Dubois' sea snake (Aipysurus duboisii) is one of the three world's most venomous snakes. The one depicted in the photo, the yellow-bellied sea snake (Hydrophis platurus), is not far behind in terms of venom toxicity. Sea snakes, however, are generally not aggressive, and bites are rare.

Hydrophiinae snakes are completely acquatic, while Laticaudinae spend part of their time on land. All species are able to breathe through their skin - which allows for longer dives - and to regulate the salt concentration in their blood. Sea snakes are only found in the warm waters of the Indian and Pacific Oceans, being prevented from crossing into the Atlantic Ocean by cold currents or salinity levels. Therefore, there are no sea snakes in the Caribbean Sea or the Black Sea, while the Bering Sea, though part of the Pacific Ocean, is definitely too far north. The Timor Sea, which is part of the Indian Ocean, is an ideal habitat for sea snakes, and its waters are home to a large number of species. The yellow-bellied sea snake is the only species found on the Pacific coast of the Americas, from southern California to northern Peru.