China: A Land of Many Faiths and None Quiz

Answer: It has no canonical scriptures nor a unified clergy

The term Chinese folk (or popular) religion ("mínjian zongjiào") covers a wide range of religious practices characteristic of Han Chinese, whose beginnings date from at least the 2nd millennium BC. These ancient practices, handed down from generation to generation, are very diverse, often varying from one town or village to another. They also pervade every aspect of the social life of a given community - although without involving the presence of an organizational structure (a "church"), or relying on canonical texts.

Chinese folk religion is based on four core concepts: Heaven ("Tian"), the source of moral meaning; "qi", the "breath of life" that exists in every living entity; "jingzu", or ancestor worship; "bao ying", the concept of cosmic and moral reciprocity. It is a polytheistic belief system with pantheistic elements, which views all deities as manifestations of "qi". "Shen" is the term applied to spirits, often associated with the forces of nature, as well as the human spirit or psyche, while "xian" denotes "gods", or immortal beings. The northern forms of folk religion are influenced by local shamanistic traditions, while in the South the links with Taoism are more evident.

The three major institutionalized Chinese religions - Taoism, Confucianism, and Buddhism - are intertwined with folk religion, without any clear boundaries separating each of them from the other. In fact, there has been an extensive two-way exchange between folk religion and these major belief systems, which are known in China as the "three teachings". All these religious experiences share the theological core illustrated in the previous paragraph, as well as the concept of the order of the universe described by the polarity of yin and yang.

This question was worshipfully written by LadyNym.

Answer: True

After the Zhou Dynasty collapsed around 770BC, there was little social order with little cultural framework: people cared only for themselves and did not have any respect for others. Confucianism became the social order in China, emphasizing that social relationships are the most important societal principles. Concepts such as respect of one's parents, elders, and ancestors were introduced and re-enforced. These principles were in place in China long before Confucius was born. He considered himself a messenger rather than an initiator. However he was able to document the history of this social order and was able to expand its belief system. He taught the five virtues: Ren (Jen), which is altruism and humanity; Yi, is righteousness; Li refers to good conduct; Zhi, means knowledge and Xin, which means loyalty, particularly loyalty within family.

Confucianism has no counterpart in the Western world: It is a world view, a social order, political ideology, scholarly traditions, and demonstrates a path for life. As such it is sometimes viewed as a philosophy and other times as a religion. Confucianism is understood to be an all-encompassing way of thinking and living grounded in ancestor reverence and a deep human- not deity-, centred religiousness. People in East Asian cultures may call themselves as Shintoists (Japan), Taoists, Buddhists, Muslims, or Christians, but, by labeling their religious affiliations, they do not renounce their right to be Confucians.

This question was written by Phoenix Rising team member 1nn1.

Answer: Simple / balanced life in harmony with nature

Generally the Tao/Dao way of life is accepting, yielding and joyful. This offsets and complements the more conservative stance of Confucianism. Daoism is based on the teachings of Lao Tzu (Old Master) who wrote the most important Tao book the "Tao Te Ching" (The Book of the Way and its Virtue) which was believed to have been written about 600BC. It is not known with certainty whether this old master actually lived. Taoists believe that words cannot be used to correctly describe what Tao is so followers concentrate on following a simple and balanced life in harmony with nature. This is a very important principle: Conflict is considered unacceptable and if there is a problem, a way around it must be sought. This therefore explains, in part, the Chinese view of life.

This question was written by Phoenix Rising team member 1nn1 who hopes the question is balanced and in harmony with its environment.

Answer: Incense burning

Mahayana Buddhism was introduced in China by missionaries from India during the Han Dynasty - probably around the 1st century AD, though the exact timeframe is still unclear. The translation of a large body of Indian Buddhist scriptures into Chinese (first documented in 148 AD) was instrumental for the spread of Buddhism in other parts of East Asia. In present-day China, Buddhism is practiced by an estimated 13%-16% of the Chinese population - which amounts to about 200 million people. Buddhism in the PRC is officially supervised by a government organ named Buddhist Association of China, founded in 1953.

Chinese Buddhism could be termed a syncretic religion, as it incorporates elements of Confucianism, Taoism, and Chinese folk religion. A major influence of the latter on Chinese Buddhism is the reverence for one's own ancestors, expressed through prayer and the participation in festivals such as Zhong Yuan/Yulanpen Festival (known as Ghost Festival) and Qinming, or Tomb-Sweeping Day. Other features of Chinese Buddhism include the veneration of Buddhas and Bodhisattvas (people on the path to "awakening"), as well as various celestial being (Devas), through offerings of incense, flowers, food, or tea; the practice of vegetarianism as a mark of respect and compassion towards all living beings; and the practice of "taking refuge" in the Triple Gems (a commitment to the three mainstays of Buddhism - the Buddha, the Dharma, and the Sangha, or monastic order).

Incense burning ("jingxiang", meaning "offering incense with respect"), also a common practice in other Chinese belief systems, is traditional in almost any form of Buddhist worship, as the fragrant smoke is believed to act as a bridge between the human world and the spirit world. In Chinese Buddhism, it is also believed to represent self-sacrifice for the benefit of others. The joss sticks are generally offered in odd numbers (three, five, or nine), which are associated with the positivity embodied by "yang". The use of rosary beads ("mala"), on the other hand, is more typical of Tibetan Buddhism.

LadyNym of the Phoenix Rising team meditated long and hard before producing this question.

Answer: Xinjiang

Over half of the population of the Xinjiang autonomous region are Uyghurs, one of China's largest recognized minority ethnic groups. Uyghurs speak a Turkic language, and have been predominantly Muslim since the 10th century AD. In terms of numbers, however, the majority of Chinese Muslims are Hui, who - unlike Uyghurs - primarily speak Chinese. Though Muslims are found in every part of China, most of them are concentrated in the regions closest to the borders with Central Asia, Tibet and Mongolia - the so-called "Quran belt". The percentage of the Chinese population that follows Islam is difficult to estimate, but is believed to be no higher than 2%. Ten of China's 55 officially recognized minority groups are Sunni Muslim: among them, besides the Hui and the Uyghurs, there are the Kazakhs, the Tajiks, the Kyrgyz, the Uzbeks, and the Tatars.

Introduced in China soon after Muhammad's death, Islam spread in that vast territory mainly thanks to maritime trade and the Silk Road (which ran through Xinjiang). Its status grew in importance during the Song Dynasty (960-1279), and flourished especially during the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644) - when Admiral Zheng He, one of history's greatest explorers, a Muslim from Yunnan, carried out his seven "treasure voyages" to other parts of Asia and East Africa.

In more recent times, Chinese followers of Islam have often been subjected to persecution, in particular (but not exclusively) during the Cultural Revolution (1966-1976). In the past few years, while Hui Muslims are allowed much more latitude, repressive practices against the Uyghur population have intensified - this in spite of Islam being one of the five religions formally recognized by the government of the PRC.

Phoenix Rising member LadyNym wrote this question while shaking her head at human intolerance.

Answer: 635 AD

The Xi'an Stele, a black limestone monument from the 8th century AD, records the arrival of Christians in Xi'an in 635 AD. Xi'an was the Chinese capital during the Tang dynasty (618 - 907 AD). These earliest Christian arrivals from the 'Church of the East', were allowed to build places of worship and practice their religion with minimal interference. This tolerance lasted until the short reign (840 -846 AD) of Emperor Li Yan (also known as Wuzong) who initiated a severe program of religious persecution against Christians, Buddhists and followers of several other religions. The major target was Buddhism as Li Yan was a devout Taoist and believed Buddhism was draining state resources (the temples were tax exempt) and having an adverse effect on Chinese society. This push to cleanse China of foreign influence had a severe impact on Christians and within 100 years it was anecdotally reported that there were no Christians left in China. Christianity did not return to China until Jesuit missionaries arrived in the 16th century.

This question was introduced into this quiz by MikeMaster99, who yet again wonders about the influence one individual in power can have.

Answer: Islam

The Three Teachings date back to the 6th century and reflect the mutual influence and remarkably complementary teachings of the group.
While Confucianism was the ideology of the ruling class, government and the law, Taoism was the worldly view of the intellectuals and favoured by the spiritual beliefs of peasants and artisans. The two, are quite opposite ends of the philosophical spectrum, jointly created the Chinese societal framework for the last three millennia. While the three co-exist together there have been periods where one ruler will favour one over the other two. Part of the harmony is because of each having their own belief system which does not overlap with the other two: Confucianism is grounded on societal rules and moral values, whereas Taoism preaches simplicity and living happily while in harmony with nature. Alternatively, Buddhism relies on the ideas of suffering, impermanence of material items, and reincarnation while emphasising the concept of attaining salvation beyond the mortal plane.

This question was carefully balanced before entering it into the quiz by Phoenix Rising team member 1nn1.

Answer: Divine Right of Kings

The transliteration of T'ien-ming is 'Heaven's will' which is a Chinese philosophy to legitimise the ruling King or Emperor of China. Accordingly, Tian (Heaven) confers the mandate of a "just" ruler as the "Son of Heaven". If a ruler was overthrown, a not uncommon occurrence, this was seen as a sign of an unworthy ruler who had lost the mandate. Calamities such as famine, flood and illness through epidemics were viewed as divine intervention and signs of a withdrawn mandate causing revolts of the populace.

A noble birth was not required to be a legitimate ruler; however it was a mark of competency to rule. The Han and Ming dynasties were founded by common men, but they succeeded as rulers as they had the Mandate of Heaven. This concept was similar to the European concept of the Divine Right of Kings. The main difference is that the Chinese concept has no unconditional right to rule. In fact, it is quite the opposite: the right of rebellion against an unjust ruler was an intrinsic component of the Mandate from Heaven. It was not uncommonly invoked by influential citizens as a way to eliminate abuse of power by the ruler, in a system which had little else in the checks and balances of the doctrine.

This question was mandated but subjected to the rigors of check and balances by Phoenix Rising team member 1nn1.

Answer: Shinto

The Chinese Communist Party is officially atheist, but it recognizes five religions: Buddhism, Daoism, Islam, and it counts the two main components of Christianity, Catholicism and Protestantism, as two religions.

Under Article 36 of the Constitution of the People's Republic of China, adopted on December 4, 1982, it states that its constituents "enjoy freedom of religious belief." It bans discrimination based on religion and forbids "state organs, public organizations, or individuals" from compelling citizens to believe in or not in any particular faith. Chinese authorities play a heavy hand in monitoring registered and unregistered groups. While this religious freedom is guaranteed by the constitution, there is still pressure to adhere to Chinese Communist Party ideology which is officially atheist.

This question was written into the quiz by Phoenix Rising team member 1nn1.

Answer: It is practiced by over half of the Chinese population

Though research on the topic yields different figures, the conclusion that can be drawn by analyzing those data is that Chinese folk religion is alive and well in contemporary China. Indeed, a survey published in 2014 found that only 12,6% of the Chinese population follow one of the five state-sanctioned religions discussed in the previous question, and only a paltry 6.3% are atheists, while over 80% - about one billion people, two-thirds of the population - practice some form of folk religion. Other studies show somewhat lower figures, which are however staggering, as they amount to over half of the current population of China. Folk religions are also practiced by many members of the Chinese diaspora.

People of all ages are actively involved in this revival of traditional religious practices, benefiting from the tolerant attitude of the government, which has a generally positive view of religious cults that promote social stability. This, however, was not always the case: after the fall of the Empire in 1911, in their attempts to modernize the country, governments and elites tried to eradicate traditional religion, which they viewed as "feudal superstition". These efforts culminated with the repressive policies of the Communist Party during the Cultural Revolution (1966-1976). Things changed rapidly after the death of Chairman Mao in 1976, and the promulgation of the Constitution of the People's Republic of China in 1978, which guaranteed freedom of religion to PRC citizens.

LadyNym found this topic deeply fascinating, and accordingly wrote a question about it.