Pigment of My Imagination Trivia Quiz

Answer: vinegar

The name "verdigris" comes from the Old French "verdegrez", meaning "green of Greece". Before the invention of synthetic green pigments such as viridian (chrome green) and cobalt green in the 19th century, verdigris was the most vibrant green pigment available to artists. It was widely employed on its own, or as a glaze (copper resinate) over white or yellow pigments. Because of its instability - which often caused the pigment to turn with time into a much less vibrant shade of greenish-brown - verdigris fell out of favour in the 19th century, when more stable pigments became available. These changes in colour, however, are more or less pronounced according to the type of verdigris and the binding agent used: Italian early 15th-century painter Cennino Cennini, in his treatise "The Book of Art", recommended tempering verdigris with an egg yolk.

Chemically, verdigris is a copper acetate, generally obtained by exposing copper plates to acetic acid (the main component of vinegar). The resulting blue-green crust was then scraped off the plates and ground to a powder. The pigment was often produced in wine-making regions, such as the south of France - the city of Montpellier being a leading production site for several centuries. Verdigris also occurs naturally as the green patina that forms on copper, brass, and bronze when exposed to air - the most famous example being the Statue of Liberty in New York Harbour. Like a number of other pigments, verdigris is toxic, and should only be handled by experts.

Verdigris was extensively used in the Early and High Renaissance, in particular by Venetian painters such as Giorgione, Titian, and Paolo Veronese. The bright green robe of the lady in Jan van Eyck's "Arnolfini Portrait" (1434, National Gallery, London) was created by using a verdigris glaze over yellow and white.

Answer: an Italian region

Umber belongs to the ochre family of natural earth pigments, which also includes sienna and various shades of ochre. All these pigments are based on iron oxides: umber owes its brown colour to a larger proportion of manganese oxides. When heated, it turns a darker shade of brown - known as burnt umber - often with a reddish tinge. The pigment's name is believed to have derived from the region of Umbria, in central Italy. However, some scholars have also suggested a derivation from Latin "umbra" (shadow) - which would be consistent with its colour.

Umber has been used since prehistory, and is still in use today; the largest deposits of this pigment in its natural state are found on the island of Cyprus. It is stable, though not resistant to acids, and can be easily mixed with other pigments to darken them. Being inexpensive and readily available, umber gained popularity in the Renaissance, and was especially prized in landscape painting. By the 17th century, umber had became one of the essential pigments in the palette of Baroque painters such as Caravaggio and Rembrandt, whose use of the chiaroscuro technique relied on umber's versatility in creating shadows.

Caravaggio's "Madonna di Loreto" (1604-1606, Church of Sant'Agostino, Rome) is based on a limited palette of black and earth tones that create dense, shifting shadows, relieved by flashes of light - such as the Virgin's white face and neck - obtained through the use of lead white. This subdued palette emphasizes the stark, unglamorous depiction of the Virgin and the two kneeling pilgrims - which created an uproar when the painting was first unveiled.

Answer: cinnabar

Already widely used in antiquity, in the Late Middle Ages vermilion became the primary red pigment employed by European painters. Its name has an intriguing origin, as it comes from "vermiculus", meaning "little worm" in Latin - a reference to the cochineal, a scale insect from which bright red dyes were obtained. Vermilion, however, is a pigment of inorganic origin, produced by grinding cinnabar (mercury sulfide) into a powder: according to Cennino Cennini's "Book of Art", repeated grinding results in a brighter colour. The pigment is also known as Chinese red due to its widespread use in Chinese lacquerware.

Being both very expensive and very toxic (like all mercury compounds), in the early 20th century vermilion was almost completely replaced by cadmium red, a synthetic pigment that is more fade-resistant and not as dangerous. As pointed out in Cennini's treatise, vermilion is unsuitable to be used for fresco painting, since it tends to darken considerably when exposed to air and light.

In Titian's "Assumption of the Virgin" (1515-1518), a large altarpiece designed for the Venetian church of Santa Maria Gloriosa dei Frari (where it remains to this day), the brilliant vermilion of the Virgin's and the Apostles' robes, with its slight orange tinge, draws the eye and intensifies the dynamic, dramatic nature of the scene.

Realgar (orange), haematite (red) and malachite (green) are also minerals that have been widely used as pigments: all three are mentioned in Cennini's treatise.

Answer: Prussia

Created around 1706 in Berlin by paintmaker Johann Jacob Diesbach, Prussian blue was the first modern synthetic pigment. The story of its origin is quite fascinating, as the pigment is believed to have been created by accident from a mix of potash, blood and iron sulfate - meant to replace red cochineal dye, but turning out a deep blue instead. When it was first marketed in 1709, the compound was given the name of Prussian blue, as Berlin at the time was the capital of the German state of Prussia.

This serendipitous creation was a game-changer for artists, since the new pigment was much longer-lasting and more affordable than the blue pigments that had been previously used in painting, like the extremely expensive ultramarine (made from powdered lapis lazuli). Though it contains cyanide, Prussian blue is not toxic, and since its creation has had many applications beyond its use as an art pigment - such as the creation of blueprints.

As soon as it was introduced, Prussian blue was enthusiastically adopted by many famous artists, such as English 18th-century painter Thomas Gainsborough. Its fame went beyond Europe: in the 1820s century the pigment was imported into Japan, where it became so popular that it gave rise to a style of woodblock prints known as "aizuri-e" ("blue-printed picture"). Although Japanese artists had previously used dyes based on indigo or dayflower petals, Prussian blue proved to be a much more versatile and longer-lasting pigment. The most famous of the prints produced by using Prussian blue is "The Great Wave off Kanagawa" (1831, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York) by famed "ukiyo-e" artist Hokusai.

Answer: aniline black

Aniline dyes were the first commercial synthetic dyes to be produced, after the accidental discovery of mauveine in 1856 by British chemist William Henry Perkin. Characterized by a deep, neutral blackness, aniline black was created in 1863, and employed mainly in the printing industry. As it is not lightfast, it is rarely used in painting, and not suitable as a pigment for oil paints.

Used since prehistory, carbon blacks are usually created by the carbonization of organic materials of both plant and animal origin. Lamp black was originally the sooty residue collected from oil lamps burning linseed or other vegetable oils, while vine black was traditionally made by charring the young shoots of vines. Other plant-derived matter used in the making of carbon black are cherry and peach stones, almond shells, and grape seeds - all of them mentioned in Cennini's "Book of Art". Ivory black used to be made by carbonizing waste ivory, but is now produced by burning animal bones and horns, and referred to as "bone black". Unlike synthetic black pigments, these pigments tend to have warmer or cooler undertones that can be used to great effect. All kinds of carbon black are very long-lasting, and compatible with other pigments.

In his "Music in the Tuileries Gardens" (1862, National Gallery, London), Édouard Manet used ivory black for the hats and clothing of the men who appear in the painting - all of them prominent members of Parisian bohemian society (including the artist himself, depicted on the leftmost edge of the canvas). Ivory black mixed with lighter pigments was also employed to produce the grey of both men's and women's clothing.

Answer: minium

Also known as red lead, minium was named after the river Minius (now Minho or Miño) in the Iberian Peninsula, near which cinnabar mines were located. In fact, in the Ancient Roman world the word "minium" was used interchangeably for both cinnabar (vermilion) and red lead, though these two pigments are chemically different. The modern English word "miniature" - now denoting something considerably smaller in size than normal - has its origin in the use of minium in medieval illuminated manuscripts such as the one in the photo. The Medieval Latin verb "miniare", meaning "to colour with minium", eventually became synonymous with the small, exquisite illustrations and drawings that decorated those manuscripts. Minium was also widely used in Persian and Indian miniature painting, and in the art of China and Japan.

Made from roasting white lead, minium (chemically lead tetroxide) also occurs naturally in mineral form; it is toxic like all lead compounds. Like vermilion, it is unsuitable for use in fresco painting because of its tendency to darken when exposed to light and humidity. The same tendency has been observed when minium is used in watercolour painting. It is, however, stable if mixed with an oil medium. Though still available for purchase, minium has been almost completely replaced by synthetic pigments such as cadmium red and cadmium orange.

Held in the library of the historic University of Heidelberg, in the German state of Baden-Württemberg, the Codex Manesse (c.1304-c.1340) is a magnificent illuminated manuscript containing the works of about 135 poets known as "Minnesänger". Each of its 137 full-page miniatures - such as the one in the photo - depicts a poet, with references to their social status, their name, or imagery from their lyrics. Minium is used prominently throughout the manuscript, not only in the illustrations, but also in the headings to each page and the capital letters at the beginning of each stanza of the songs.

Madder, crimson and carmine are all red pigments: madder comes from a plant (Rubia tinctorium), while crimson and carmine are pigments extracted from several species of scale insects.

Answer: Netherlands

Chemically a basic lead carbonate, lead white was almost the only pigment used in European painting until the 19th century - when other synthetic pigments became available, and its sale was restricted due to its toxicity. The pigment was also the main ingredient of a skin-whitening cosmetic known as Venetian ceruse, widely used by the European aristocracy, as well as in China and Japan - often resulting in permanent damage to the skin, and occasionally death.

With its thick, opaque texture and warm undertones, lead white was also prized by painters for its fast drying time. When mixed with an oil medium (especially linseed oil) it is extremely durable and can last for centuries without darkening - which is not the case if the pigment is used in watercolour or in fresco painting (as pointed out in Cennino Cennini's "Book of Art"). In the late 19th century, lead white was gradually replaced by zinc white (also known as Chinese or snow white), and later by titanium dioxide white.

The great Dutch masters of the 16th and 17th century made the most of lead white, which was essential for creating subtle or dramatic chiaroscuro effects, as well as a wide range of flesh tones. This is particularly evident in portrait paintings such as Rembrandt's "Portrait of Aechje Claesdr" (1634, National Gallery, London), which mainly relies on the contrast between the lady's deep black robe (painted in bone black) and her white cap and ruff, rendered with lead white of high purity. Lead white touched with red and yellow ochre and vermilion also creates the lady's extremely realistic skin tone.

Answer: porcelain

Produced as early as the 8th century AD, Chinese blue and white pottery was decorated by hand with a cobalt-based blue pigment (generally cobalt oxide) before the glaze was applied. The popularity of this pigment was also due to its ability to withstand the very high temperatures of pottery kilns. These blue pigments, however, had their origin in the Middle East - in particular Persia, where cobalt was mined - and were also widely employed in Islamic pottery. Cobalt compounds have also been used since antiquity to produce dark blue glass.

Modern cobalt blue was discovered in 1802 by French chemist Louis Jacques Thénard, while working on behalf of the famous Sèvres porcelain factory. Chemically, cobalt blue is a cobalt aluminate, produced by combining cobalt oxide and aluminum oxide at very high temperature. It is stable and lightfast, and unaffected by either acid or alkaline substances. Like other pigments, it is toxic, and should be handled with care. Ground cobalt glass was also used as a pigment named "smalt" (from the Italian word for "enamel"), which was a much less expensive alternative to natural ultramarine.

Cobalt blue was commercialized soon after its discovery, and many eminent artists of the 19th century employed it in their paintings: one of its earliest adopters was English Romantic painter J.M.W. Turner. Later in the century, the pigment became especially popular with Impressionist and Post-Impressionist painters such as Pierre-Auguste Renoir and Vincent van Gogh. In his iconic "The Starry Night" (1889, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York), van Gogh used cobalt blue for the lighter blue, swirling sections of the sky, and artificial ultramarine for the deeper blue areas surrounding the stars.

Answer: tin

The Italian words "giallorino" or "giallolino" (meaning "light yellow") may refer to either Naples yellow (lead antimonate) or lead-tin yellow, a lead stannate (lead-tin oxide) believed to have been discovered around the 13th century as a by-product of crystal glass production. The "giallorino" described by Cennino Cennini in his "Book of Art" is a hard, yellow stone of volcanic origin - which does not describe either Naples yellow or lead-tin yellow. In any case, lead-tin yellow truly came into its own in Renaissance and Baroque painting (hence its nickname of "Yellow of the Old Masters").

Stable and lightfast, lead-tin yellow came in two types - Type I being the purer of the two, while Type II was the one associated with glassmaking. It was a very versatile pigment to use on its own, or mixed with blue pigments to create various shades of green. Though it completely disappeared from use in the mid-18th century, replaced by synthetic pigments such as chrome and cadmium yellow, lead-tin yellow was rediscovered in 1941 by German scientist Richard Jakobi, who gave it its current name. Now it is also available commercially (though at a rather hefty price) from specialized dealers.

Outstanding examples of use of lead-tin yellow are found in two 17th-century Dutch paintings: Rembrandt's "Belshazzar's Feast" (1635-1638, National Gallery, London), where it is applied in thick impasto to create the rich brocade on Belshazzar's cloak, and Vermeer's "The Milkmaid (ca. 1658, Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam). In the latter work, lead-tin yellow is employed in almost pure form for the bodice of the maid's dress, and combined with brilliant ultramarine for the sleeves.

Answer: arsenic

A copper acetoarsenite, emerald green was created in 1814 by two chemists working at the Wilhelm Dye and White Lead Company in Schweinfurt, Bavaria (hence its alternative name of Schweinfurt green). The chemists were trying to improve another popular arsenic-based pigment, Scheele's green, which was prone to fading and darkening when exposed to sulfides. The new pigment (also known as Paris or Vienna green) soon became highly prized in the art world for its vivid, blue-tinged green colour, reminiscent of the gemstone after which it was named.

In spite of the dangers linked to its use, as well as its tendency to darken when exposed to air and natural light, emerald green became extremely popular in Impressionist and Post-Impressionist circles. Being cheap to produce, emerald green was also used to colour wallpaper and furniture - releasing a poisonous gas when exposed to damp conditions - and even as a dye for women's dresses and fake flowers. After a number of cases of poisoning - some of them fatal - the use of emerald green as pigment became obsolete (when not outright banned), though it continued being used as an insecticide until the mid-20th century. According to a popular theory, Napoleon Bonaparte's death was caused to exposure to arsenic-based green paint. Production of emerald green pigment has now been discontinued.

Though in the late 19th century the much safer and stabler viridian (chrome green) was already widely available, painters such as Claude Monet, Paul Cézanne and Paul Gauguin continued to use emerald green in their works. In his most famous painting, "A Sunday Afternoon on the Island of La Grande Jatte" (1884-1886, Art Institute of Chicago), Georges Seurat made extensive use of emerald green (mixed with other green, blue, yellow and white pigments) for both the water and the grass.