Persian Wars: Causes and Course Quiz

Answer: Halicarnassus, Asia Minor

Herodotus is a controversial figure, known as both the 'Father of Lies' and the 'Father of History'. He was born between 490BCE and 480BCE in Halicarnassus, on the south-west coast of Asia Minor. He is known to have travelled widely, to Egypt, Africa and extensively in Greece.

His age means that he was likely to have access to sources that saw/survived the Persian Wars. Unfortunately he has a tendency to make up for a lack of facts by recording popular beliefs. While this can be useful for gauging the public opinion at a time, it is not a replacement for the facts.

He moved to Italy to finalise 'The Histories' and eventually died in 425BCE.

Answer: Earth and water

The Persians sent envoys to the Greek towns to demand their surrender, first to Darius and later to Xerxes. It was common for these envoys to be chased out of the towns they visited and few towns acquiesced in the demands. Many Greek cities took the opportunity to prove a point, in Macedonia the Persian envoys and their entire entourage disappeared completely.

In Sparta (when Xerxes demanded earth and water) they threw the envoy in the well and told him to get it from down there.

Answer: Cyprus

The Ionian revolt caused major concern for the Persians. Initially supported by the Athenians, the Ionians and the majority of Cyprus rose up against their Persian masters. The Ionians suffered a defeat at Ephesus and the Athenians abandoned their allies and retreated to mainland Greece.

The Ionians appealed to them again and again but in vain. They were not too disappointed by this and seized Byzantium and the surrounding areas, including Caria.

Answer: 'Master, remember the Athenians'

When he heard about the sacking of Sardis (his capital) Darius shot an arrow into the sky and cried 'Grant, O God, that I may punish the Athenians'. He then instructed his servants to tell him three times a day as he sat down to dinner, 'Master, remember the Athenians'.

He began to gather information about the Athenians as his army began to reclaim the land lost to the Ionians. First Cyprus was reconquered and then the Ionian forces were separated and subjugated.

Answer: Miletus

The victory over the Ionian fleet allowed the Persians to attack Miletus by land and sea. Miletus, the hometown of Aristogoras the principal general of the Ionian revolt, was sacked after its walls were sapped and rammed. The entire city was reduced to slavery.

The city used as a winter base for the Persian fleet which took Chios, Lesbos and Tenedos without diffciulty. They were then prepared for the summer campaign season.

Answer: Ten

The Athenians decided to hurry and meet the Persians at Marathon despite it not being to their advantage. They would have been better served choosing a battlefield which would have limited the usefulness of cavalry. The Greeks depended on their hoplite foot soldiers to carry battles, while the Persians had a much more diverse range of troops.

The Athenian troops were commanded by ten generals (one for each tribe in the city), the most famous of these being Miltiades. It is to him that the historic victory is attributed.

The majority of the generals favoured a very cautious approach and did not want to offer battle on the plains of Marathon. Miltiades convinced them otherwise. The vote was finally carried after Miltiades prevailed upon the War Archon Callimachus that offering battle was essential.

Answer: 6,400 Persians - 192 Athenians

The Athenians attacked without support from cavalry or archers. The Persians were surprised by their boldness but hurried out to meet them. The battle was a very long affair, the Persians dominated the centre of the battlefield but on the wings their allies were pushed back by the Athenians on one side and the Plataeans on the other.

The two sides of the Greek forces were then able to rout the Persian centre, which fled for the sea. The casualties included Callimachus and at least one other general.

Herodotus' casualty figures are certainly designed to reflect well on the Greeks and badly on the Persians, as he later does with the figures from the Battle of Thermopylae. His success at Marathon allowed Mitiades to launch a naval expedition to pursue the Persians.

Answer: Demaratus

Demaratus, son of Ariston, arrived in Susa having gone into voluntary exile from Sparta. Demaratus make friends with Xerxes, one of the possible heirs to the throne. The death of Darius followed shortly afterwards and Xerxes succeeded him. This left Demaratus as a close advisor to the new ruler. Demaratus advised Xerxes throughout his campaign against Greece, especially about the skill and strength of the Spartiates. Xerxes laughed at his tales of their bravery, it is likely he changed his opinion after Thermopylae.

Answer: Artabanus

Xerxes' two chief advisors each tried to persuade him to agree with them as regards the Greek question. Mardonius, the general of Darius who later became his son-in-law, urged swift and violent retribution against the Greeks. Artabanus, Xerxes' uncle and one time hopeful for the throne, advised that the expedition would be ill-fated.

He advised that if Xerxes was intent on this foolish mission that he should remain in safety in Persia and just send Mardonius. Xerxes could not decide between his two advisors and retired for the night.

Initially he dreamt that the war was wrong, but the next night the shadowy figure berated him for his cowardice and convinced him to go ahead with the invasion. Artabanus was ordered to dress as Xerxes and sleep in his bed in order that he too might experience the dream.

The figure appeared to Artabanus and warned him that he too would be punished if he did not participate in the war. Both Xerxes and Artabanus were convinced.

Answer: He had the Hellespont lashed to teach it a lesson

Xerxes' first bridge over the Hellespont was destroyed in a storm. Ever the patient ruler, Xerxes had the architects beheaded and in order to ensure the Hellespont did not thwart his plans again he had it lashed and red hot brands thrust into it. His army crossed at the second attempt, over two bridges of boats.

The crossing took seven days and nights. Xerxes crack troops, the Ten Thousand, had the honour of crossing first.

Answer: The fleet

The Athenian envoys arrived at Delphi and performed the customary rites, they then asked the oracle for her prophecy. The prophecy referred to them as 'doomed ones' and used phrases such as 'all is ruined' and 'bow your hearts in grief'. The envoys were not happy with this and approached a second time, bearing olive branches, and asked for another prophecy. This one was more to their liking and they returned to the city with it.

'Not wholly can Pallas win the heart of Olympian Zeus,
Though she prays him with many prayers and all her subtlety;
Yet will I speak to you this other word, as firm as adamant:
Though all else shall be taken within the bound of Cecrops
And the fastness of the holy mountain of Cithaeron,
Yet Zeus the all-seeing grants to Athene's prayer
That the wooden wall only shall not fall, but help you and your children.
But await not the host of horse and foot coming from Asia,
Nor be still, but turn your back and withdraw from the foe.
Truly a day will come when you will meet him face to face.
Divine Salamis, you will bring the death to women's sons
When the corn is scattered, or the harvest gathered in.'

The Athenians understood the wooden wall to be the fleet and identified Salamis as the place for a decisive battle. While the prophecy predicted death, by calling it 'Blessed Salamis' the oracle was giving its blessing to a battle there.

Answer: How to spend the money from the mines at Laurium

Themistocles had possibly served as an archon in around 493BCE, but rose to prominence during the debate about how to spend the proceeds from the silver mines at Laurium. The assembly had originally wanted to divide it amongst themselves (at the rate of 10 drachmaa per person) but were persuaded to instead pool the money.

This was then used to build a fleet of 200 warships. It was this decision that enabled Athens to become a maritime power and ultimately defeat the Persian armada. His good advice then allowed him to influence the people again.

Answer: Sparta

According to Herodotus the Athenians were noble enough to share command with the Spartans (they commanded the fleet and the Spartans the army). In reality it is more likely that they knew that the other Greek states had more liking for Sparta, and that forcing them to accept Athenian control would fracture the fledgling alliance.

The envoys to other states had mixed results. The most important failure was in securing the support of Gelon of Syracuse. The tyrant of Syracuse offered supplies and troops but only if the Greeks would accept his sole command.

This was clearly unacceptable to the proud and independent Greek states and they had to make do without his support.

Answer: Ephialtes

The battle of Thermopylae is well documented. The pass allowed the Greeks to meet the Persians on equal terms, the superior numbers of the latter being no use in the narrow pass. Even the famed Immortals, Xerxes' own bodyguard, were repulsed with heavy losses.

The traitor, Ephialtes, led the Persians over a mountain pass which was lightly guarded by Phocians. The seer Megistias first alerted the Greek force to the danger and Leonidas acted accordingly. He was reminded of a prophecy that stated either a 'king of the house of Hercules' would die or 'your famed, great town [Sparta] must be sacked by Perseus' sons'. Leonidas, one of the two kings of Sparta, came from the royal house supposedly descended from Hercules.

He believed his death would save his city.

Answer: Thespians

When he heard the news that the Persians were about to surround the Greek position, Leonidas dismissed his allies. He refused to lead his warriors in a retreat and led his 298 warriors into battle. He forced the Thebans to remain behind as hostages to ensure the continued support of their city.

The only other contingent to remain behind were the Thespians, who refused to abandon Leonidas. They died alongside the Spartans. The two Spartiates who were too ill to fight saw the desperate straits of their allies, one plunged into the fray and died alongside his comrades.

The other returned to Sparta where (according to Herodotus) he committed suicide because of his shame. The Thebans surrendered as the Spartans and Thespians were pushed back and the Persians spared their lives.

Answer: Artemisia

The battle at Salamis was a tightly fought affair. The Greeks, cut off from retreat, fought as a tightly organised unit led by the Athenians. The Persians fought with zeal, under the watchful eye of their king, but without co-ordination. The tale of Artemisia is the most colourful to come out of the battle. Chased by an Athenian vessel, Artemisia took the opportunity to ram a boat from her own side, and thus convinced the Athenians she was on their side. Xerxes, watching the battle from the cliffs, saw Artemisia ramming a vessel and not realising it was another of his ships praised her courage.

After the Greek victory, Xerxes withdrew his remaining ships. Herodotus remarked that he was worried that the Greek fleet would sail to the Hellespont and break the bridge, thus cutting off his army.

He withdrew his remaining ships to protect this asset.

Answer: Mardonius

When Xerxes considered retreating, Mardonius suggested that a force remain behind to occupy Greece and look to complete the invasion next year. He argued that the army had yet to be defeated and that it could still fulfil its potential. Artemisia, using her new-found reputation, advised that Xerxes retreat and leave Mardonius with a force. Xerxes found her advice agreeable.

Herodotus adds that Xerxes was so frightened he was very keen to retreat, but this was probably mainly to please his Greek audience.

Answer: Potidaea

The siege of Potidaea began well for the Persians. They cut the city off and Artabazus managed to convince Timoxenus, commander of the troops from Scione, to betray the city. Unfortunately the arrow he fired into the city finalising the offer was intercepted.

After three months the Persians judged the tide to be low enough to storm the city through the harbour. They were wrong. The tide rose and unsurprisingly men in metal armour did not float. After this setback the siege was lifted and Artabazus rejoined Mardonius.

Answer: 3,000

The defeat of the Persians was complete, only Mardonius' cavalry had any success. The Spartans routed the cream of the Persians and the rest of the Greek force tore through the Medes and Persian allies. Mardonius himself died in the melee and according to Herodotus only 3,000 of the Persians succeeded in fleeing.

Answer: Mycale

The battle of Mycale was fought by the Greek fleet, but was mainly a land battle. The fleets took the unusual step of disembarking to fight. The battle was long and slow, the Persians well dug in and the Greeks unable to break through. Eventually the army that had won at Plataea and Thebes began to arrive, taking the Persians from the opposite direction.

This defeat marked the end of the Persian Wars and ensured that the next major war the Greeks fought would be amongst themselves. I hope this has entertained you :-)