Yours Truly, An Inanimate Carbon Rod Quiz

Answer: Allotropy

An allotrope of an element is a modification of the element's bonding structure. Allotropes of a single element may have different chemical formulas. For example, O2 (the oxygen that we breathe) and O3 (ozone) are chemical allotropes of oxygen. Allotropy shouldn't be confused with isometry, which is the modification of a compound's structure (for example, glucose and fructose have identical chemical formulas, but they differ in the placement of a single double bond on the molecule). To put it another way, allotropes are structural modifications of elements, while isomers are modifications of compounds.

Answer: Diamond and graphite

Carbon is tetravalent, meaning that it forms four chemical bonds. That's why the field of organic chemistry is so large: carbon's interactions with other elements encompasses a wide variety of compounds.

However, when carbon is chemically bonded only to iself, in the form of its allotropes, there are only three major structures that it can take on. Diamond is formed when carbon bonds to form tetrahedra and hexagonal rings. The structure is very sturdy and stable, which is why diamond is so hard. In graphite, each carbon atom uses only three valence electrons, which forms a less sturdy arrangement. The result is a more brittle compound that can conduct electricity, because the loose valence electrons can carry current along the plane of the molecule.

Answer: Architecture

Some of the earliest fullerenes to be discovered weren't rod-shaped, and instead were 32-sided structures in the shape of geodesic domes. Fuller was a contemporary architect most famous for his work in constructing the futuristic, many-sided domes, and the scientists named their discovery in his honor. Some of his most famous works include the Montreal Biosphere and the famous golf ball at Disneyworld's EPCOT Center, which houses the "Spaceship Earth" exhibit.

Today, the roughly spherical fullerenes are called "buckminsterfullerenes", often shortened to "buckyballs." Buckyballs are made up of twenty hexagonal faces and twelve pentagonal faces, specifically forming a "truncated icosahedron." It's essentially the same shape as a soccer ball. Cylindrical fullerenes, also known as carbon nanotubes, are (somewhat less commonly) called buckytubes. Buckytubes are made up only of hexagons, but their chemical properties are somewhat similar to buckyballs'.

Answer: In your fireplace

Fullerenes (specifically buckyballs, which are the most common type of fullerene) can be found in small quantities in soot, which essentially is an impure form of carbon formed from the burning of a hydrocarbon fuel. In addition to the most common (C60) form of fullerenes, one can find C70, C76, and C84 molecules in nature (Note: C60 simply means that there are 60 carbon atoms in one molecule. C84 has 84 carbon atoms). Fullerenes are also created in small amounts during lightning strikes in the atmosphere.

They also may be found naturally in a group of Russian minerals.

Answer: Strongly inert and insoluble in most compounds

There is an entire branch of organic chemistry devoted to fullerenes, which as the title of this quiz pointed out, are very unreactive and are infuriatingly difficult to dissolve in solution. Buckytubes are even more difficult to work with because, unlike other fullerenes, they cluster together and are hard to separate physically. Scientists study fullerenes and try to overcome their chemical properties because the molecules' physical and chemical properties make them ideal for several scientific applications.

Answer: A meteor or comet was responsible for the greatest mass extinction in the fossil record.

The Permian-Triassic extinction isn't as well-known as the K-T extinction, which killed off the dinosaurs, but it was much more dramatic. Also known as the "Great Dying," it was responsible for the annihilation of 96% of marine and 70% of terrestrial species on Earth. Occurring more than 250 million years ago, it was the greatest destruction of life on the planet ever. Reasons for the mass dying are disputed, but scientists now believe that fullerenes hold evidence for the cause. Samples of neon and argon that have endured inside the hollow shell of buckyballs now reveal that a collision with an extraterrestrial object (comet or meteor, most likely) was the reason for such a high death toll.

Answer: Superconductivity

At 18K (-255 degrees Celsius), fullerenes become superconductors- that is, their electrical resistance drops to 0. The interior magnetic field disappears, and an electrical current flowing through the superconductor can flow forever. Since 1991, scientists have discovered complex compounds that can become superconductors at even higher temperatures; however, most compounds can only reach superconductive states at temperatures close to absolute zero.

At normal pressure, C60 with rubidium and cesium can achieve superconductivity at 33K.

These properties encourage scientists to pursue fullerenes as potentials in the field of nanotechnology.

Answer: Batteries

The so-called "paper battery" was theorized by a group at the Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute in 2007. A liquidized salt is used as an electrolyte so that the battery can function at temperatures between -100 to 400 degrees Fahrenheit (-73 and 149 degrees Celsius).

In addition, electrolytes found in the human body, like blood and sweat, can be used to activate the device. In this way, scientists hope that paper batteries could power pacemakers or other implants biochemical devices. Although the batteries are safe and biodegradable, their inherent cost due to the relative scarcity of nanotubes makes them commercially impractical until a new source for the fullerenes can be found.

Answer: Space elevator

The idea of an elevator into space dates back to the 1895 musings of Russian Konstantin Tsiolkovsky. Mostly limited by funds and the enormous amount of materials needed, plans for the space elevator were encouraged by the discovery of unreactive, strong carbon nanotubes, whose large tensile strength would be ideal for the cables necessary to construct the elevator.

In 2008, a Japanese book written by Dr. Brad Edwards and Philip Ragan influenced Japan to announce its intent to build the elevator for the price of one trillion yen.

Although the science was sound before 2008, the cost to construct an elevator was far too macroscopic for large projects to begin.

Answer: Photocopiers

Xerox filed a patent in the United States for the use of buckyballs as photocopier toner. Much smaller than regular copier toner, they improve resolution strongly.

Nanotubes are also used in microscopes, circuitry, and a plethora of other technologies. Since their discovery in 1985, they have become an important tool in scientific research and in new technologies.